Research methodology MCQ Quiz - Objective Question with Answer for Research methodology - Download Free PDF

Last updated on Mar 19, 2024

Latest Research methodology MCQ Objective Questions

Research methodology Question 1:

In Oswald Spengler's Cyclical Theory of History, which of the following statements are CORRECT?

(a) Each culture goes through distinct stages of growth, maturity, decline, and eventual death.
(b) Spengler believed Western Civilization had already reached its peak and was entering a period of decline.
(c) Unlike some cyclical theories, Spengler did not posit the possibility of rebirth or renewal for cultures.
(d) Spengler's theory emphasized the role of technology and economic factors as the driving forces of historical change.

  1. a and b only
  2. a, b and c only
  3. a, c and d only
  4. a, b, c and d

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 2 : a, b and c only

Research methodology Question 1 Detailed Solution

The Cyclical Theory of History proposes that civilizations, like living organisms, go through a predictable cycle of birth, growth, maturity, decline, and ultimately, death. This theory stands in contrast to the more linear view of history as constant progress

Key Points

  • (a) Stages of Growth and Decline: Spengler argued that cultures, like living organisms, go through predictable stages: spring (youth), summer (maturity), autumn (decline), and winter (death). Each culture has its unique character and artistic expression, reaching a peak before inevitably declining.
  • (b) Decline of Western Civilization: Spengler wrote after experiencing the horrors of World War I. He saw Western Civilization as having reached its peak and entering a period of cultural and spiritual decline, marked by materialism, imperialism, and social unrest.
  • (c) No Rebirth for Cultures: Unlike some cyclical theories, Spengler did not believe cultures could be reborn. He viewed them as closed systems that rise and fall independently, with no possibility of renewal.

Additional Information

  •  (d) Technology and Economics: Spengler's theory focused more on cultural and artistic expressions as markers of a civilization's trajectory. While acknowledging technology, he didn't see it as the primary driver of historical change.

Research methodology Question 2:

In the context of recent trends in Indian historiography, which of the following statements are CORRECT?

(a) There's a growing emphasis on the environmental history of India, examining how humans interacted with and shaped their ecological surroundings.
(b) Historians are increasingly employing digital tools and methodologies for data analysis, historical mapping, and public outreach.
(c) Studies on emotions and subjective experiences are gaining traction, moving beyond purely economic or political interpretations of the past.
(d) The focus has shifted away from studying the history of elites and institutions, with a renewed interest in the lives and experiences of marginalized communities.

  1. a and c only
  2. a and d only
  3. a, c and d only
  4. a, b, c, and d

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : a, b, c, and d

Research methodology Question 2 Detailed Solution

The correct answer is (a), (b), (c), and (d).
Key Points

Recent Indian historiography has witnessed a significant expansion in scope and methodology. All the statements highlight these exciting trends:

  • (a) Environmental History:  This is a growing field that examines how humans have interacted with and shaped their environment over time. It explores issues like deforestation, resource management, and the impact of climate change on Indian history.
  • (b) Digital Tools and Methodologies: Historians are increasingly utilizing digital tools for data analysis, text mining, historical GIS mapping, and creating online archives. This allows for more complex analysis, visualization of historical patterns, and wider public access to historical materials.
  • (c) Emotions and Subjective Experiences: Historians are exploring the role of emotions like fear, anger, or joy in shaping historical events. They also examine personal narratives, diaries, and oral histories to capture subjective experiences of the past, moving beyond purely structural or economic analyses.
  • (d) Marginalized Communities:  There's a renewed interest in the history of marginalized communities like women, Dalits, Adivasis, and religious minorities. Historians are using various sources, including oral traditions and local archives, to reconstruct their experiences and contributions to Indian history.

Research methodology Question 3:

Regarding causation and imagination in historical analysis, which of the following statements are CORRECT?

(a) Establishing a single, definitive cause for historical events is rarely achievable due to the complex interplay of factors.
(b) Historians employ their imagination to reconstruct past events by filling in gaps in the historical record.
(c) Historical imagination is completely unconstrained by evidence and allows for entirely fictionalized narratives.
(d) Ideally, historical interpretations should present a single, causal narrative for a historical event.

  1. a and b only
  2. b and c only 
  3. c and a only
  4. d and b only

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 1 : a and b only

Research methodology Question 3 Detailed Solution

Key Points
  • a) Complex Causation: Historical events are rarely caused by a single factor. Underlying social, economic, political, and cultural forces often contribute in a complex interplay. Historians must consider this complexity when analyzing causes.
  • (b) Imagination and Reconstruction: The historical record is often incomplete, with gaps and silences. Historians use their imagination to bridge these gaps by drawing on relevant evidence from various sources and considering the context of the events. This allows them to create a plausible reconstruction of the past.

Additional Information

  • (c) Imagination Constrained by Evidence: While imagination plays a role, it is not unfettered. Historians must base their interpretations on evidence from sources like documents, artifacts, archaeology, and even oral traditions when available. Fabricated narratives violate the core principles of historical inquiry.
  • (d) Multiple Interpretations: There can be multiple valid interpretations of historical events due to the complexity of causes and the limitations of the historical record. A single narrative may not capture the full picture.

Research methodology Question 4:

Logographers, the predecessors of Greek historians, are MOST distinguished from Herodotus, the "Father of History," by their:

  1. Extensive use of oral traditions and myths alongside limited written sources.
  2. Focus on a single, unifying theme or chronological narrative.
  3. Emphasis on political and military history of the Greek world.
  4. Development of a critical method for evaluating historical evidence.

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : Development of a critical method for evaluating historical evidence.

Research methodology Question 4 Detailed Solution

Key Points
  • Critical Methodology: Herodotus stands out for his developing a more critical approach to historical inquiry.
  • He compared different accounts, acknowledged the limitations of oral traditions, and even visited places he wrote about to verify information. Logographers, on the other hand, generally lacked this level of critical analysis.

Additional Information

  • Extensive use of oral traditions and myths: Both logographers and Herodotus relied heavily on oral traditions and myths. While Herodotus might have been more critical in his use of them, the reliance on such sources was a common feature.
  • Focus on a single, unifying theme or chronological narrative: While some logographers might have focused on specific regions or topics, others did attempt chronological narratives. Herodotus, however, is known for weaving diverse elements into a grand narrative of the Greco-Persian Wars.
  • Emphasis on political and military history: Both logographers and Herodotus were interested in political and military history.

Research methodology Question 5:

The emergence of the "positive" school of historical writing in the 19th century was a reaction to which of the following trends in historical scholarship?

  1. Increased emphasis on social and economic forces shaping history
  2. Focus on the role of great individuals and heroic deeds.
  3. Rejection of scientific methodology in historical research.
  4. Growing interest in the history of everyday life and popular culture.

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : Rejection of scientific methodology in historical research.

Research methodology Question 5 Detailed Solution

The correct answer is
Key Points

 

  • Scientific Method and Objectivity: The "positive" school, exemplified by Leopold von Ranke, emphasized applying scientific methods to historical research. They aimed for objectivity and a focus on primary sources like documents and official records.
  • Reaction to Romanticism and Idealism: This movement arose as a reaction to earlier trends in historical writing, particularly Romanticism, which often relied on emotions, intuition, and philosophical interpretations of the past. They saw this approach as subjective and unscientific
  • Emphasis on Critical Source Analysis: "Positive" historians valued rigorous source criticism to verify the accuracy and authenticity of historical documents. They aimed to establish a set of methodologies for historical research to ensure reliable conclusions.

Additional Information

  • Increased emphasis on social and economic forces: The "positive" school actually embraced this trend, aiming to apply scientific methods to analyze these forces.
  • Focus on the role of great individuals and heroic deeds: While not the sole focus, some "positive" historians found inspiration in this approach, attempting to verify details surrounding historical figures.
  • Growing interest in the history of everyday life and popular culture: This development largely occurred later, in the 20th century, with the rise of social history and cultural studies.

Top Research methodology MCQ Objective Questions

In which of the following research methods, manipulation and control of variables, and randomization of sample are two of the basic requirements?

  1. Ex-post facto research
  2. Descriptive research
  3. Case study research
  4. Experimental research

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : Experimental research

Research methodology Question 6 Detailed Solution

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Research methods Description
Ex-post facto research
  • An ex-post-facto the researcher attempts to trace an effect that has already occurred to its probable causes. 
  • The researcher has no direct control over the independent variable because it has occurred much prior to producing its effects.
Descriptive research
  • To study and obtain information concerning the current status of a given phenomenon.
  •  It determines the nature of a situation as it exists at the time of the study.
  • The aim is to describe “what exists” with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.
Case study research
  • A case study is a deep, detailed, and intensive study of a social unit;
  • It is a method of qualitative research;
  • It preserves wholeness of the units i.e. it is an approach that views any social unit as a whole.
  • It helps to collect detailed information about the unit of study and gives clues to new ideas and further research.
  • As a tool of analysis, it helps to ascertain a number and variety of traits, qualities, and habits confined to a particular instance.
  • The Case Study method shows the way to deepen our perception and sharpen insights to understand biographies.
Experimental research
  • It is a systematic and scientific approach to research on establishing causal relationships.
  • It is designed for establishing cause and effect relationships between two or more variables.
  • It investigates a hypothesis through experiments in a controlled environment where a variable is manipulated by the researcher and its impact is observed on the dependent variable.
  • It tests the formulated hypothesis and uses the results to generalize to a larger population.
  • It helps in establishing causal relationships among different events in the educational situation under controlled conditions
  • There are four essential characteristics of experimental research:
    1. control
    2. manipulation
    3. observation and
    4. replication

Which one of the following is the main feature of qualitative research?

  1. Avoids positivist assumptions and data analysis
  2. Subscribes to pre-existing categories
  3. Collects data in numerical form
  4. Uses the empirical method of data analysis

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 1 : Avoids positivist assumptions and data analysis

Research methodology Question 7 Detailed Solution

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Research is a systematic inquiry towards understanding a complex social phenomenon or a process. They are broadly categorized into qualitative and quantitative research. Based on the research problem, the selection of research methods by the researcher may vary.
Key Points

Positivistic Research Paradigm:

A research paradigm is a research model or a perceptual orientation for conducting research that has been verified by the research community.

  • Emphasizes quantitative analysis over qualitative analysis
  • Relies heavily on experimentation
  • Subscribes to pre-existing categories
  • Hypotheses are put forward about the causal relation between phenomena
  • Empirical evidence is gathered and analysed that explains the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable
  • Employs a deductive approach to analyse data
  • Collects numerical data

Important Points

Features of Qualitative Research:

  • The objective is to explore a phenomenon to gain understanding by diving deeper into the problem
  • Used qualitative methods of data collection such as interviews, focus groups, observation, etc.
  • The sample size is kept small
  • Believes in interpretivism paradigm and disregards the positivist assumptions and statistical data analysis
  • Inductive reasoning is employe where things are observed, a pattern is developed and then the theory is formed
  • The conclusions are descriptive rather than predictive.

Hence, it is clear from the given points that qualitative research avoids positivist assumptions and data analysis.

Which of the following are the features of case study method?

(A) It is appreciative

(B) It is particularistic

(C) It is descriptive

(D) It is inductive

(E) It is mechanical

Choose the most appropriate answer from the options given below :

  1. (A), (B), (C) only 
  2. (B), (C), (D) only 
  3. (C), (D), (E) only 
  4. (A), (D). (E) only

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 2 : (B), (C), (D) only 

Research methodology Question 8 Detailed Solution

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the most appropriate answer is (B), (C), (D) only.

Important Points

Case study method:

  • The case study method is known for its particularistic approach, meaning it focuses on a specific case or situation.
  • It is also descriptive in nature, providing detailed information about the case.
  • The case study method is also considered to be inductive, as it involves drawing conclusions based on observations and evidence.

Case study:

  • A case in a case study research could be an individual, organization, or institution.
  • It is concerned with the in-depth study of a singular case (one person) from various possible angles for the sake of promoting his/her adjustment
  • It is a qualitative research method that involves investigating a contemporary research problem within its real-life context by making use of multiple sources of data.
  • It seeks to explore an area regarding which there is little understanding or prior knowledge.
  • The data sources in a case study include data regarding the family and educational background and the primary data collection methods employed are observation and conducting interviews.     

Key Points

The case study method in research is a qualitative approach that involves the in-depth examination of a specific case or situation. It is used to gain a deeper understanding of a particular phenomenon. Some key points about the case study method include:

  • Particularistic: The case study method focuses on a specific case or situation, rather than trying to generalize to a larger population.

  • Descriptive: The case study provides a detailed description of the case, including relevant background information, context, and relevant data.

  • Inductive: The case study method is inductive in nature, meaning that it involves drawing conclusions based on observations and evidence.

  • Flexible: The case study method is flexible, allowing the researcher to gather a wide range of data, including interviews, observations, and documents.

  • Multiple sources of evidence: The case study method often involves collecting data from multiple sources, including the subjects of the study, witnesses, and relevant documents.

  • Interpretive: The case study method requires an interpretive approach, as the researcher must analyze and interpret the data collected.

The term "research methodology" refers to

  1. the methods used in data collection and analysis.
  2. the rules for writing a research report or paper.
  3. the specific methods of study and analysis.
  4. the theoretical paradigms for data collection, analysis and interpretation.

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : the theoretical paradigms for data collection, analysis and interpretation.

Research methodology Question 9 Detailed Solution

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Research methodology refers to the techniques used to find and analyze information for a study, ensuring that the results are valid and reliable and that they address the research objective. It is the theoretical paradigm for data collection, analysis, and interpretation.

Important PointsResearch Methodology:

  • Research methodology is a way of explaining how a researcher intends to carry out their research.
  • It's a logical, systematic plan to resolve a research problem.
  • A methodology details a researcher's approach to the research to ensure reliable, valid results that address their aims and objectives.
  • It encompasses what data they're going to collect and where from, as well as how it's being collected and analyzed.

Therefore, the term "research methodology" refers to the methods used in data collection and analysis.

Additional Information

For example, steps involved in research methodology by the researcher.

  • What data to collect (and what data to ignore)
  • Who to collect it from (in research, this is called “sampling design”)
  • How to collect it (this is called “data collection methods”)
  • How to analyze it (this is called “data analysis methods”)

In which of the following research methods, process of hypothesis testing optimally safeguards the role of extraneous variables?

  1. Expost Facto method
  2. Experimental method
  3. Historical method
  4. Descriptive survey method

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 2 : Experimental method

Research methodology Question 10 Detailed Solution

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An experimental method of research is a type of study in which the researcher speculates on the possible reasons for a previously observed result.

Key Points

Experimental research:

  • The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable.
  • This method relies on controlled methods, random assignment, and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis.
  • The experimental method under which the researcher can directly modify the independent variable(s) (that is, the cause) in an experimental study to see how it affects the dependent variable (that is, the effect).

Therefore, Experimental method research methods, the process of hypothesis testing optimally safeguards the role of extraneous variables. 

Additional Information

  • Both experimental and ex-post facto research attempt to study links between existent variables and their conclusions are logically as well as empirically valid and accurate, but there is various difference between them.
  • Ex post facto research is undertaken when a researcher wishes to investigate the cause of an event that has already occurred as an outcome of the cause.
  • The phrase historical method refers to a set of strategies and rules used by historians in their investigation and writing of past histories.
  • Descriptive Survey Research is a type of descriptive research that combines quantitative and qualitative data to give you reliable and relevant facts. 

Match List I with List II :

 

List I

Type of validity

 

List II

Reflection

(A)

Face Validity

(I)

Indicates adequacy of instrument

(B)

Concurrent validity

(II)

Indicates the extent to which the measurement is used

(C)

Construct

(III)

Compares a new test to an already established test.

(D)

Predictive

(IV)

The extent to which a score on a scale forecasts scores on same criterion measure

Choose the correct answer from the options given below :

  1. (A) - (I), (B) - (II), (C) - (III), (D) - (IV)
  2. (A) - (II), (B) - (III), (C) - (IV), (D) - (I)
  3. (A) - (III), (B) - (IV), (C) - (I), (D) - (II)
  4. (A) - (I), (B) - (III), (C) - (II), (D) - (IV)

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : (A) - (I), (B) - (III), (C) - (II), (D) - (IV)

Research methodology Question 11 Detailed Solution

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Validity is one of the important characteristics of scientific research. The term ‘Validity’ implies truth or fidelity. Thus, validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure. The word "valid" is derived from the Latin ‘validus’. A Valid measurement is always reliable.

  • For determining the validity of a test, the test should be compared to another independent construct or criteria. 
  • Validity is concerned with generalizability. 
  • Validity has three important properties:
    • It is a relative term.
    • It is not a fixed concept or criteria of a test because it is an unending process that requires constant validation.
    • It is just a measure concept and not an all-or-none property.

Important Points

Validity Description
Face Validity
  • It occurs where something appears to be valid.
  • It depends on the judgment of the observer.
  • Weakest way to demonstrate the construct validity.
  • It is a content-related validity. 
  • It Indicates the adequacy of the instrument used.
Concurrent validity
  • It measures how well a new test compares to a well-established test.
  • It practices concurrently testing two groups at the same time.
  • It is a criterion related to validity. 
  • It compares a new test to an already established test.
Construct Validity
  • It refers to how well a test or tool measures the construct that it was designed to measure.
  • It is a content-related validity.
  • It indicates the extent to which the measurement is used.
Predictive Validity
  • It is the extent to which a score on a scale or test predicts scores on some criterion measure.
  • It is a criterion related to validity.
  • The extent to which a score on a scale forecasts scores on some criterion measure.

Creating purpose statements, research questions and hypotheses that are narrow and measurable would mark the characteristic features of which research type?

  1. Narrative research
  2. Ethnographic research
  3. Grounded theory research
  4. Experimental research

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : Experimental research

Research methodology Question 12 Detailed Solution

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A research design is a framework for the methods and approaches. 

Key Points

  • Experimental research is a study that is based on scientific research design.
  • The characteristic features of Experimental research are the following: 
    • A purpose statement is a declarative statement that highlights the major goal or goals of a research study.
    • The goal of a study or research endeavor is to answer research questions on the topic.
    • A hypothesis is a statement that expresses expectations for the results of research.
    • After developing a hypothesis then collect numeric data. 
  • In short, developing clear, restricted, measurable, and observable purpose statements, research questions and hypotheses are characteristic features of experimental research.
  • Experimental research is a study that uses two sets of variables and is conducted in a scientific manner.

Thus, creating purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses that are narrow and measurable would mark the characteristic features of Experimental research.

Additional Information

  • Grounded theory research: Grounded theory is a systematic approach to qualitative research where theories are generated through the collecting and analysis of data.
  • Ethnographic research:   Ethnography is a qualitative data collection method and the researcher work in the field where they collect data through observations and interviews. 
  • Narrative research:  It was defined as collecting and analyzing the accounts of respondents when they describe experiences and further interpret them. 

Identify the main features of qualitative research from the following :

(A) It is concerned with understanding the phenomena from the participant's perspective.

(B) It assumes that there are social facts with a single objective reality.

(C) Researcher becomes immersed in the situation, present or past.

(D) Researcher is detached from the study to avoid bias.

(E) There is greater flexibility in both the methods and research process. 

Choose the correct answer from the options given below : 

  1. (A), (C) and (E) only 
  2. (A), (B) and (C) only
  3. (B), (C) and (D) only
  4. (C), (D) and (E) only 

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 1 : (A), (C) and (E) only 

Research methodology Question 13 Detailed Solution

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Qualitative research is research using methods such as participant observation or case studies that result in a narrative, descriptive account of a setting or practice.

Key points

The main features of qualitative research are: 

  • It is a naturalist approach that seeks an understanding of social phenomena.
  • It deals with human behavior from an informant's perspective.  
  • This type of research analyzes non-numeric data
  • It focuses on the ‘why and what’ of social phenomena.
  • Inductive in approach.
  • It has a Post Positivist approach.
  • It is concerned with understanding the phenomena from the participant's perspective.
  • The researcher becomes immersed in the situation, present or past.
  • There is greater flexibility in both the methods and the research process.
  • Biases of the researcher are quite evident in this type of research.

Hence, (A), (C), and (E) are the main features of qualitative research.

Additional Information

Examples of qualitative research methods
  • Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
  • Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
  • Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.

In which of the following, there is greater flexibility in both the methods and process of research?

  1. Ethnography and phenomenology
  2.  Descriptive survey and impact studies
  3. Experimental and observation based studies
  4. Expost facto and historical studies

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 1 : Ethnography and phenomenology

Research methodology Question 14 Detailed Solution

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According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Research is a systematic inquiry towards understanding a complex social phenomenon or a process. Based on the research problem, the selection of research methods by the researcher may vary. There are two types of research on the basis of a process i.e Quantitative research and Qualitative research.

Quantitative Research:

Qualitative Research:

  • It is similar to deductive research.
  • It follows a linear path that includes creating the hypothesis, collecting data, analyzing data, accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.
  • It involves the collection of a large amount of data and converting it into numerical form to apply statistical calculations and make conclusions.
  • Descriptive, Correlational, Causal-Comparative/Quasi-Experimental (ex post facto), and Experimental Research, Survey Research,
  • The objective is to explore a phenomenon to gain understanding by diving deeper into the problem.
  • The quality of data rather than quantity is given importance.
  • Used qualitative methods of data collection such as interviews, focus groups, observation, etc. 
  • It is spiral in nature and flexible in the steps of conducting research. 
  • The researcher starts with observation and ends with a theoretical position.
  • It moves from specific to theory.
  • A subject is studied in depth.
  • The conclusions are descriptive rather than predictive.
  • Believes in the interpretivism paradigm and disregards the positivist assumptions and statistical data analysis.
  • The behavioral aspect of people is studied. (thoughts, beliefs, attitude, values, etc).
  • Phenomenological Method, Ethnographic Model, Grounded Theory Method,
    Case Study Model,
    Historical Model,
    Narrative Model.

Ethnographic Research:

  • The goal of ethnographic research is to describe and interpret a cultural or social group.
  • Ethnographers spend extensive time in the setting being studied and use observations, interviews, and other analyses to understand the nature of the culture. 
  • Ethnography is an in-depth description and interpretation of cultural patterns and meanings within a culture or social group.  The main emphasis is on groups. 
  • Ethnographers study specific cultural themes.

Phenomenological Research:

  • ​The goal of phenomenological research is to fully understand the essence of some phenomenon. 
  • This is usually accomplished with long, intensive individual interviews. 
  • The purpose is to describe and interpret the experiences of participants in order to understand the essence of the experience as perceived by the participants. 
  • The basis is that there are multiple ways of interpreting the same experience and that the meaning of the experience to each participant is what constitutes reality. 
  • Focuses on the consciousness of human experiences.

Thus, the most appropriate answer is Ethnography and phenomenology.

Which of the following is an example of qualitative research?

  1. Experimental research
  2. Ex post facto research
  3. Descriptive survey research
  4. Grounded theory research

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : Grounded theory research

Research methodology Question 15 Detailed Solution

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Qualitative research is research using methods such as participant observation or case studies that result in a narrative, descriptive account of a setting or practice.

Important Points

  • Grounded theory is a systematic methodology that has been largely applied to qualitative research conducted by social scientists.
  • The methodology involves the construction of hypotheses and theories through the collecting and analysis of data.
  • The grounded theory involves the application of inductive reasoning.
  • The methodology contrasts with the hypothetico-deductive model used in traditional scientific research.
  • A study based on grounded theory is likely, to begin with, a question, or even just with the collection of qualitative data.
  • As researchers review the data collected, ideas or concepts become apparent to the researchers. These ideas/concepts are said to "emerge" from the data.

Hence Grounded theory research is an example of qualitative research.

Additional Information

  • Experimental research is a study that strictly adheres to a scientific research design.
    • It includes a hypothesis, a variable that can be manipulated by the researcher, and variables that can be measured, calculated, and compared.
  • Ex post facto study or after-the-fact research is a category of research design in which the investigation starts after the fact has occurred without interference from the researcher.
  • A Descriptive Survey Research is an approach of Descriptive Research that blends quantitative and qualitative data to provide the researcher with relevant and accurate information.
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